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Forced relocation of the southeastern Native American tribes

Trail of Tears
Role of Indian removal
TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg

The Trail of Tears memorial at the New Echota Historic Site in Georgia, which honors the Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears
Location Southeastern United states of america and Indian Territory

Attack type

 Forced displacement
Ethnic cleansing[1] [two]
Deaths Cherokee (4,000)
Creek
Seminole (3,000 in Second Seminole State of war – 1835–1842)
Chickasaw (3,500)
Choctaw (2,500–6,000)
Ponca (200)
Victims "Five Civilized Tribes" of Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Ponca and Ho-Clamper/Winnebago nations
Perpetrators U.South. Federal Government, U.Southward. Army, state militias
Motive Acquisition of Native American land east of the Mississippi River.

The Trail of Tears was a series of forced displacements of approximately 60,000 American Indians of the "V Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 past the United states government.[3] Part of the Indian removal, the indigenous cleansing was gradual, occurring over a period of virtually 2 decades.[4] Members of the then-called "V Civilized Tribes"—the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their blackness slaves[5])—were forcibly removed from their bequeathed homelands in the Southeastern United states of america to areas to the due west of the Mississippi River that had been designated Indian Territory.[3] The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities subsequently the passage of the Indian Removal Deed in 1830.[half dozen] The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of golden near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gilded Blitz.[7]

The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands died from illness before reaching their destinations or shortly afterwards.[8] [ix] [x] [11] [12] According to Native American activist Suzan Shown Harjo of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian, the event constituted a genocide,[13] although this characterization has been rejected by a number of historians.[xiv] [15]

Historical context

A map of the process of Indian Removal, 1830–1838. Oklahoma is depicted in low-cal yellowish-light-green.

In 1830, a grouping of Indian nations, collectively referred to as the "Five Civilized Tribes" (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living autonomously in what would later be termed the American Deep South. The process of cultural transformation from their traditional way of life towards a white American way of life as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox was gaining momentum, especially amidst the Cherokee and Choctaw.[16] [17]

American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made bachelor to the settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some, including U.Due south. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee, President Andrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the authorities to extinguish whatsoever Indian championship to state claims in the Southeast.

In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served equally the model for all futurity relocations. After two wars, many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly the Cherokee in 1838.[18] Some managed to evade the removals, however, and remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw still reside in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in Northward Carolina, and Seminole in Florida. A modest group of Seminole, fewer than 500, evaded forced removal; the modernistic Seminole Nation of Florida is descended from these individuals.[19] A small number of non-Indians who lived with the nations, including some of African descent (including over four,000 slaves, and others such equally spouses or Freedmen), also accompanied the Indians on the trek w.[18] Past 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for white settlement.[18] [xx] When the "5 Tribes" arrived in Indian Territory, "they followed their concrete appropriation of Plains Indians' land with an erasure of their predecessor'south history", and "perpetuated the idea that they had institute an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in an attempt to appeal to white American values by participating in the settler colonial process themselves. Other Indian nations, such equally the Quapaws and Osages had moved to Indian Territory before the "V Tribes" and saw them equally intruders.[21]

Before 1838, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous Indian nations, comprising large areas of the United States, were subject field to continual cession and annexation, in function due to pressure from squatters and the threat of war machine force in the newly declared U.S. territories—federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims. As these territories became U.S. states, state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of country jurisdiction, and to expropriate the land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the Due south, with the rapid development of cotton tillage in the uplands later on the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney.[22]

Jackson's role

Andrew Jackson's support for the removal of the Indians began at least a decade before his presidency.[23] Indian removal was Jackson'due south height legislative priority upon taking office.[24] The removals, conducted under both Presidents Jackson and Van Buren, followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which provided the president with powers to exchange land with Indian nations and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands. The police also gave the president ability to pay for transportation costs to the Westward, should the nations willingly choose to relocate. The police did not, nevertheless, allow the president to strength Indian nations to move west without a mutually agreed-upon treaty.[25] Referring to the Indian Removal Act, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president and successor, is quoted as saying "In that location was no measure, in the whole course of [Jackson's] administration, of which he was more exclusively the author than this."[24]

In the years later the Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the country of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being Worcester five. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the The states federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester'south favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was field of study just to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia. Main Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a singled-out community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia tin can have no force. The whole intercourse between the The states and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the Usa."[26]

Andrew Jackson did not mind to the Supreme Courtroom mandate barring Georgia from intruding on Cherokee lands. He feared that enforcement would pb to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would chemical compound the ongoing crisis in Southward Carolina and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee.[27] Political opponents Henry Dirt and John Quincy Adams, who supported the Worcester determination, were outraged by Jackson'south refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia.[28] Author and political activist Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of the Worcester determination.[29]

Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, on Dec 29, 1835, which granted the Cherokee two years to move to Indian Territory (mod-day Oklahoma). Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees westward in 1838.[xxx] The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In Nov, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began the journey westward. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures.

When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land eastward of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other Indian nations had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were too relocated under the Indian Removal Human activity of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths", a devastating event that removed most of the Native population of the southeastern The states from their traditional homelands.[31]

Terminology

The forced relocations and ethnic cleansings of the Indian nations have sometimes been referred to equally "death marches", in particular when referring to the Cherokee march across the Midwest in 1838, which occurred via a predominantly land route.[22]

Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal. Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.S. Ground forces included those led by Edward Deas, who was claimed to be a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight.[ citation needed ] The largest decease toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the menses after the May 23, 1838 deadline. This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were rounded up into camps and placed into big groups, often over 700 in size (larger than the populations of Little Rock or Memphis at that time). Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing many. These groups were among the concluding to motion, but following the same routes the others had taken; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them. The marchers were bailiwick to extortion and violence along the road. In addition, these concluding contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing many. Exposure to the elements, disease, starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly killed upward to one-third of the Choctaw and other nations on the march.[32]

There exists some debate amid historians and the afflicted nations as to whether the term "Trail of Tears" should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the United States eastward of the Mississippi into Indian Territory (as was the stated U.Due south. policy), to the five Indian nations described above, to the route of the land march specifically, or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up.

Legal background

The territorial boundaries claimed equally sovereign and controlled by the Indian nations living in what were then known as the Indian Territories—the portion of the early U.s. westward of the Mississippi River not still claimed or allotted to become Oklahoma—were fixed and determined by national treaties with the United States federal regime. These recognized the tribal governments as dependent but internally sovereign, or autonomous nations under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government.

While retaining their tribal governance, which included a constitution or official quango in nations such as the Iroquois and Cherokee, many portions of the southeastern Indian nations had become partially or completely economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy in states such as Georgia, and the possession of slaves. These slaves were also forcibly relocated during the process of removal.[22]

Nether the history of U.S. treaty law, the territorial boundaries claimed past federally recognized Indian nations received the aforementioned status nether which the Southeastern tribal claims were recognized; until the following establishment of reservations of state, determined by the federal authorities, which were ceded to the remaining Indian nations by de jure treaty, in a process that frequently entailed forced relocation. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishment of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi anticipated the establishment of the U.S. Indian reservation system. Information technology was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century.

The statutory statement for Indian sovereignty persisted until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation 5. Georgia (1831), that (e.yard.) the Cherokee were not a sovereign and contained nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. However, in Worcester 5. Georgia (1832), the court re-established limited internal sovereignty under the sole jurisdiction of the federal regime, in a ruling that both opposed the subsequent forced relocation and set the basis for modern U.S. case law.

While the latter ruling was defied by Jackson,[33] the actions of the Jackson administration were non isolated because state and federal officials had violated treaties without issue, oft attributed to war machine exigency, equally the members of private Indian nations were non automatically Us citizens and were rarely given standing in any U.Due south. court.

Jackson's interest in what became known as the Trail of Tears shaped what occurred immensely: in a spoken communication regarding Indian removal, Jackson said,

Information technology will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and nether their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and peradventure cause them gradually, nether the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their brutal habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community.

According to Jackson, the motion would be nothing but beneficial for all parties. His point of view garnered back up from many Americans, many of whom would benefit economically from the forced removals.

This was compounded by the fact that while citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize the Indian nations' land claims, only individual title under State police, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited continuing in court; and Indian removal was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. Equally a result, individual Indians who could prove U.South. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas.[22] The military deportment and subsequent treaties enacted past Jackson'due south and Martin Van Buren's administrations pursuant to the 1830 police force, which Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett had unsuccessfully voted confronting,[34] are widely considered to have straight acquired the expulsion or death of a substantial part of the Indian population then living in the southeastern United States.

Choctaw removal

The Choctaw nation resided in big portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11 million acres (45,000 km2). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were simply agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. The chief of the Choctaw nation, George West. Harkins, wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence:

It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well-improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw. But having adamant to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have idea proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that activate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be costless, than live nether the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their germination.

—George W. Harkins, George W. Harkins to the American People[35]

United States Secretarial assistant of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in iii phases starting in 1831 and catastrophe in 1833. The commencement was to begin on November i, 1831, with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially, the Choctaws were to be transported by carriage but floods halted them. With nutrient running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for most lx miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. At that place the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a calendar week with the rivers clogged with water ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a scattering of boiled corn, i turnip, and two cups of heated h2o per day. Twoscore regime wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to ship them to Little Rock. When they reached Fiddling Rock, a Choctaw master referred to their trek as a "trail of tears and death".[36] The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps.

Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831:

In the whole scene in that location was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable good day; 1 couldn't watch without feeling one'due south eye wrung. The Indians were tranquil but somber and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be complimentary," he answered, could never go whatever other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.

—Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America[37]

Almost 17,000 Choctaws fabricated the move to what would exist called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma.[38] Near 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000–vi,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 afterward the initial removal efforts.[32] [39] The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and nosotros ourselves take been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died".[39] The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal regime. President Andrew Jackson wanted potent negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements information technology was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to exist removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.[40]

Seminole resistance

The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams–Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were chosen to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the Ocklawaha River. The Treaty of Payne'due south Landing called for the Seminoles to move w, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to exist settled on the Creek reservation and get part of the Creek nation, who considered them deserters[ full citation needed ]; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands only also from other Indian nations. Those among the nation who in one case were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the chief ring of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not exit Florida until Oct 1832. After touring the surface area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled in that location, the 7 chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new country was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, all the same, almost of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed information technology, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in whatsoever case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the Indian nations and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went w in 1834.[41] On Dec 28, 1835, a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.Southward. Army visitor marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort Rex in Ocala, killing all only 3 of the 110 army troops. This came to be known equally the Dade Massacre.

As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the State of war Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard Yard. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days subsequently. Saccharide plantations along the Atlantic declension south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.[42]

Other warchiefs such every bit Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Equus caballus connected the Seminole resistance against the regular army. The war ended, afterward a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. regime is estimated to have spent about $xx,000,000 on the war, at the time an astronomical sum, and equal to $536,344,828 today. Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace. Other scholars land that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades subsequently the Seminole Wars.[43]

As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to exist the just federally recognized Indian nation which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States.

In full general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance every bit unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26, 1836, called the "Hostilities of the Seminoles", assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act.[44]

Creek dissolution

After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South.[45] Friendly Creek leaders, like Selocta and Big Warrior, addressed Abrupt Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they continue the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did non "cut (Tecumseh's) throat" when they had the chance, so they must now sacrifice Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations.

Jackson opened this offset peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That washed, he turned to the Cherry-red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the unabridged Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting the state of war, which by his adding came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km2) of state.

—Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson [45]

Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a police force that made further land cessions a capital offense. However, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up nigh of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia.[46] Later the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on April 30, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa.

The Creek National Quango, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826).[47] The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had always done or would practice again—accomplish the annulment of a ratified treaty."[48] However, Governor George Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians nether the terms of the before treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. Every bit he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to state of war over."

Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still nigh 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. Still, the land moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided upwards Creek lands into individual allotments.[49] Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the w, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair take a chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, withal. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans connected unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to practice much to halt it. Farther, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough relate of the events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized past speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated afterward the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta.[l] A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many badly poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by conveying out occasional raids on surface area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the U.s.a. after the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located forth the Chattahoochee River on the boundary betwixt Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so-called "Creek State of war of 1836" Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched Full general Winfield Scott to cease the violence past forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and later on equally in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those fifteen,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they somewhen settled.[31]

Chickasaw monetary removal

The Chickasaw received financial bounty from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five-year fence. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 (equal to $12,490,333 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The offset group of Chickasaws moved in 1836 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4, 1836, with all of their assets—property, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by the Choctaws and the Creeks. One time in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation.

Cherokee forced relocation

Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross, photographed earlier his decease in 1866

By 1838, well-nigh 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final gild from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees.[31] Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma.[51] In the Cherokee linguistic communication, the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the identify where they cried") or nu na hello du na tlo hello lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Human activity of 1830, which exchanged Indian country in the Due east for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.[52]

The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure level, and illegal settlements resulted. Long-simmering tensions betwixt Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crunch by the discovery of aureate near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Aureate Rush, the 2d golden rush in U.Southward. history. Hopeful aureate speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian state claims in the state of Georgia.

When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830, the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Courtroom. In Cherokee Nation five. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. Notwithstanding, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since just the national government—not state governments—had authorization in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia is associated with Andrew Jackson's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now allow him enforce it!" In reality, this quote did non appear until 30 years after the incident and was commencement printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley.[27]

Elizabeth "Betsy" Brown Stephens (1903), a Cherokee Indian who walked the Trail of Tears in 1838

Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with Due south Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war.[27] With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson dominance to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put force per unit area on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty.

The final treaty, passed in Congress by a unmarried vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren immune Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama an armed force of vii,000 militiamen, regular army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee. After the initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journeying were acquired by illness, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter.[53]

In the wintertime of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) march with scant vesture and virtually on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Red Dirt, Tennessee, the location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to become around them.[54] After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois nigh the 3rd of Dec 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged a dollar a caput (equal to $24.3 today) to cross the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $2.92 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cantankerous and were forced to have shelter under "Pall Rock", a shelter barefaced on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to practise". Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.Due south. Authorities through the courthouse in Vienna, suing the government for $35 a head (equal to $850.61 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee.[54]

As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, Commissary Agent for Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote:

There is the coldest conditions in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something similar 8 or 12 inches [20 or xxx cm] thick. We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals. Information technology snows here every two or 3 days at the fartherest. We are at present camped in Mississippi [River] swamp four miles (6 km) from the river, and at that place is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this identify, which has been about three weeks. It is unknown when we shall cross the river....[55]

A volunteer soldier from Georgia who participated in the removal recounted:

I fought through the civil war and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered past thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I e'er knew.[56]

A Trail of Tears map of Southern Illinois from the USDA – U.S. Forest Service

It eventually took almost iii months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on state betwixt the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.[57] The expedition through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths. However a few years before forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water-based route through the Tennessee, Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It took only 21 days, simply the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were wary of water travel.[58]

Removed Cherokees initially settled most Tahlequah, Oklahoma. When signing the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 Major Ridge said "I have signed my death warrant." The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only Stand up Watie escaped death.[59] The population of the Cherokee Nation somewhen rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States.[60]

There were some exceptions to removal. Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not bailiwick to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokees, sometimes referred to as the Oconaluftee Cherokee due to their settlement near to the river of the same name, lived on country in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal. Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the Qualla Purlieus after assisting the U.S. Ground forces in hunting down and capturing the family of the sometime prophet, Tsali (who faced a firing squad afterward capture). These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.

A local paper, the Highland Messenger, said July 24, 1840, "that between nine hundred and a thousand of these deluded beings … are still hovering almost the homes of their fathers, in the counties of Macon and Cherokee" and "that they are a dandy annoyance to the citizens" who wanted to buy land at that place believing the Cherokee were gone; the paper reported that President Martin Van Buren said "they … are, in his opinion, gratuitous to become or stay.'[61]

Eastern Cherokee Restitution

The United States Court of Claims ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Nation's merits against the U.S. on May 18, 1905. This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,438,023.04 today) to the Nation's eligible individuals and families. Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a list using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds, known as the Guion Miller Curlicue. The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals; the court approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds.[62] [ page needed ]

Statistics

Southern removals
Nation Population before removal Treaty and year Major emigration Total removed Number remaining Deaths during removal Deaths from warfare
Choctaw 19,554[63] + white citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) 1831–1836 fifteen,000[64] five,000–6,000[65] [66] [67] 2,000–4,000+ (cholera) none
Creek (Muscogee) 22,700 + 900 Black slaves[68] Cusseta (1832) 1834–1837 xix,600[69] Several hundred 3,500 (disease later on removal)[lxx] Unknown (Creek War of 1836)
Chickasaw 4,914 + 1,156 Black slaves[71] Pontotoc Creek (1832) 1837–1847 over 4,000[71] Several hundred 500–800 none
Cherokee 16,542 + 201 married white + 1,592 Blackness slaves[72] New Echota (1835) 1836–1838 xvi,000[73] ane,500 two,000–four,000[74] [75] none
Seminole 3,700–5,000[76] + fugitive slaves Payne'due south Landing (1832) 1832–1842 2,833[77]–four,000[78] 250[77]–500[79] 700 (Second Seminole War)

Landmarks and commemorations

Map of National Historic trails

In 1987, nigh two,200 miles (3,500 km) of trails were authorized by federal constabulary to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people.[80] Called the Trail of Tears National Celebrated Trail, it traverses portions of nine states and includes country and water routes.[81]

Trail of Tears outdoor historical drama, Unto These Hills

A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears, Unto These Hills written by Kermit Hunter, has sold over five meg tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1, 1950, both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in Cherokee, North Carolina.[82] [83]

Commemorative medallion

Cherokee artist Troy Anderson was deputed to design the Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion. The falling-tear medallion shows a 7-pointed star, the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.[84]

In literature and oral history

  • Family Stories From the Trail of Tears is a collection edited by Lorrie Montiero and transcribed by Grant Foreman, taken from the Indian-Pioneer History Drove[85]
  • Walking the Trail (1991) is a book by Jerry Ellis describing his 900-mile walk retracing of the Trail of Tears in reverse

Run across too

  • Long Walk of the Navajo, a later forced removal
  • California Genocide
  • Northern Cheyenne Exodus
  • Potawatomi Trail of Death
  • Timeline of Cherokee removal

References

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Bibliography

  • Anderson, William, ed. (1991). Cherokee Removal: Earlier and Later on. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN978-0-8203-1482-2.
  • Bealer, Alex W. (1996) [1972]. Only the Names Remain: The Cherokees and The Trail of Tears . Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown. ISBN978-0-316-08519-9.
  • Carter, Samuel (1976). Cherokee Sunset: A Nation Betrayed. New York: Doubleday. ISBN0-385-06735-six.
  • Ehle, John (1989) [1988]. Trail of Tears: The Ascension and Fall of the Cherokee Nation . New York: Anchor Books. ISBN0-385-23954-eight.
  • Fitzgerald, David; King, Duane (2008). The Cherokee Trail of Tears. Portland, Oregon: Graphic Arts Books. ISBN978-0-88240-752-4.
  • Foreman, Grant (1989) [1932]. Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (11 ed.). Norman, Oklahoma: Academy of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-1172-0.
  • Gregg, Matthew T. and David M. Wishart. "The price of Cherokee removal". Explorations in Economic History Book 49, Issue four, Oct 2012, Pages 423–442
  • Jahoda, Gloria (1995) [1975]. Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813–1855. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN978-0-517-14677-4.
  • Mooney, James (2007) [1888]. King, Duane (ed.). Myths of the Cherokee. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN978-0-7607-8340-5.
  • Perdue, Theda; Light-green, Michael (2008) [2007]. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-14-311367-half dozen.
  • Prucha, Francis (1984). The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-3668-9.
  • Remini, Robert (2001). Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. New York: Viking. ISBN0-670-91025-2.
  • Wallace, Anthony (1993). The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (Hardback ed.). New York: Loma and Wang. ISBN0-8090-6631-9.
  • Wilson, James (1998). The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. New York: Grove Press. ISBN978-0-8021-3680-0.
  • Winn, William W. (2015). The Triumph of the Ecunnau-Nuxulgee: Land Speculators, George M. Troup, Land Rights, and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama, 1825-38. Macon: Mercer Academy Press. 9780881465228.

Documents

  • U.S. Senate (April xv–17, 1830). Cherokee Indian Removal Debate. Archived from the original on February 6, 2009.
  • Scott, Winfield (May x, 1838). Winfield Scott's Accost to the Cherokee Nation. Archived from the original on October six, 2008.
  • Gen. Winfield Scott's Order to U.Southward. Troops Assigned to the Cherokee Removal. Cherokee Agency. May 17, 1838. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008.

External links

  • The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy; 2006 documentary directed by Scrap Richie and narrated past James Earl Jones
  • Trail of Tears National Historic Trail (U.S. National Park Service)
  • Seminole Tribe of Florida History: Indian Resistance and Removal Archived 2016-04-29 at the Wayback Machine
  • Muscogee (Creek) Removal
  • Cherokee Heritage Documentation Center
  • Cherokee Nation Cultural Resources Middle
  • Trail of Tears - The Dream We Dreamed
  • The Trail of Tears and the Forced Relocation of the Cherokee Nation, a National Park Service Education with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson program
  • Trail of Tears Scroll, Access genealogy
  • Trail of Tears historical marker

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears

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